Formation Of Carboxylic Acid From Base

Ester Reactions: Formation of Carboxylic Acid from Ester using Strong Base

Carbonyl Reactions: Ester → Carboxylic Acid Using Strong Base (NaOH, heat; then H₃O⁺)

Treating an ester with hot aqueous NaOH performs saponification, a base-promoted nucleophilic acyl substitution (BAc2). Hydroxide attacks the carbonyl to give a tetrahedral intermediate that collapses, expelling RO⁻ and generating a carboxylic acid that is immediately deprotonated to its carboxylate salt. Because the product is RCO₂⁻ (a very poor leaving group), the reaction is effectively irreversible. After the base stage is complete, a separate acidic work-up (H₃O⁺) protonates the carboxylate to furnish the neutral carboxylic acid.


Key Emphasis (Teaching Pivots)

  • Mechanistic class: Base-promoted nucleophilic acyl substitution (BAc2): HO⁻ adds → tetrahedral intermediate → collapse expels RO⁻ → carboxylate forms.
  • Irreversibility: Deprotonation to RCO₂⁻ removes the electrophile and makes the reverse process (re-esterification) inaccessible under base; one equivalent of base is consumed.
  • Workflow: Stage 1 (NaOH, heat) delivers the carboxylate salt + ROH. Stage 2 (H₃O⁺ work-up) protonates the salt to the free carboxylic acid.
  • Contrast to acid hydrolysis: Acidic hydrolysis is equilibrium-controlled and reversible; saponification is effectively one-way.

Quick Summary

  • Reagents/conditions: (1) NaOH (aq), reflux/heat; (2) H₃O⁺ acidic work-up.
  • Stage 1 outcome: R–C(=O)OR′ + OH⁻ → R–CO₂⁻ + R′OH (Na⁺ balances the carboxylate). Base is consumed stoichiometrically.
  • Stage 2 outcome: R–CO₂⁻ + H₃O⁺ → R–CO₂H + H₂O. The alcohol by-product remains the same.
  • Driving force: Formation of the carboxylate salt (poor leaving group) locks the reaction products.

Mechanism — Four Frames (Base Stage + Acidic Work-Up)

Step 1: Hydroxide attacks the ester carbonyl to give a tetrahedral alkoxide.
Step 1 — Hydroxide attack. HO⁻ adds to the acyl carbon while the π electrons shift to the carbonyl oxygen, forming the tetrahedral intermediate.
Step 2: Collapse re-forms C=O and expels RO−.
Step 2 — Collapse/elimination. The lone pair on the original carbonyl oxygen re-forms the C=O, ejecting RO⁻ as the leaving group.
Step 3: H3O+ protonates the carboxylate.
Step 3 — Acidic work-up. H₃O⁺ protonates the carboxylate oxygen to reveal the free carboxylic acid.
Step 4: Products after work-up (carboxylic acid + ROH).
Step 4 — Products after work-up. The reaction outputs the neutral carboxylic acid plus the corresponding alcohol.

Mechanistic Checklist (Exam Focus)

  • Base is not catalytic: each ester carbonyl consumes one equivalent of HO⁻ (which becomes ROH).
  • Leave RO⁻/ROH explicitly — the leaving group departs as an alkoxide, then becomes the alcohol coproduct.
  • Emphasize the carboxylate after Stage 1 (no neutral acid until work-up).
  • Do not draw protonated carbonyls or carbocations under base; everything is closed-shell.
  • Irreversibility arises because RCO₂⁻ will protonate any alkoxide faster than the reverse addition–elimination can occur.

Worked Examples

Methyl benzoate → sodium benzoate + methanol (then benzoic acid)

Hot NaOH converts methyl benzoate into sodium benzoate (the carboxylate salt) and methanol; H₃O⁺ work-up furnishes benzoic acid.

Example A reactant: methyl benzoate Reagent: 1) NaOH, heat 2) H3O+ Example A products: benzoic acid + methanol

Ethyl acetate → sodium acetate + ethanol (then acetic acid)

Saponification of ethyl acetate is textbook: the acetate salt forms under base, and acidification liberates acetic acid while ethanol remains the coproduct.

Example B reactant: ethyl acetate Reagent: NaOH, heat; then H3O+ Example B products: acetic acid + ethanol

γ-Butyrolactone → sodium 4-hydroxybutanoate (then 4-hydroxybutanoic acid)

Lactones behave like intramolecular esters: NaOH opens the ring to the hydroxy-carboxylate; acidification delivers 4-hydroxybutanoic acid.

Example C reactant: γ-butyrolactone Reagent: NaOH, heat; then H3O+ Example C products: 4-hydroxybutanoic acid

Scope & Limitations

  • Works well: Simple alkyl/aryl esters, triglycerides (fat/oils → soaps), and lactones (ring-open to hydroxy acids).
  • Slower substrates: Strongly deactivated or very hindered acyl groups may require longer reflux or higher base concentration.
  • Selectivity: Other base-labile functional groups (acid chlorides, anhydrides) will react even faster. Amides are significantly less reactive and typically survive.
  • Solvent effects: Using RO⁻/ROH instead of HO⁻/H₂O leads to transesterification rather than hydrolysis.

Edge Cases & Exam Traps

  • Reporting the neutral acid before work-up (incorrect); the base stage ends at the carboxylate salt.
  • Drawing SN2 at the alkyl carbon (wrong pathway) instead of addition–elimination at the carbonyl carbon.
  • Forgetting that one equivalent of base is consumed (overall stoichiometry).
  • Confusing the irreversible base route with the reversible acid-catalyzed hydrolysis.

Practical Tips

  • Use aqueous NaOH or KOH at reflux (H₂O or H₂O/EtOH). Provide good mixing when the ester is hydrophobic (phase transfer or vigorous stirring).
  • After saponification is complete, cool and acidify to pH < 2 with H₃O⁺ (often dilute HCl). Many carboxylic acids precipitate and can be filtered.
  • For soap making, isolate the sodium (or potassium) carboxylate salts directly; acidifying later regenerates the free fatty acids.
  • Avoid depicting H₃O⁺ during the base stage; introduce it only during the work-up panel.

Exam-Style Summary

(1) NaOH, heat: HO⁻ adds to the ester, collapse expels RO⁻, and the carboxylic acid is trapped as RCO₂⁻ (plus R′OH). (2) H₃O⁺ work-up protonates the carboxylate to give the isolated carboxylic acid. Irreversible because carboxylate is a terrible leaving group under basic conditions.


Interactive Toolbox

  • Mechanism Solver — Use Mechanism Solver to animate hydroxide attack, collapse, carboxylate formation, and the H₃O⁺ work-up (toggle lactone mode for ring opening).
  • Reaction Solver — Use Reaction Solver to compare irreversible base hydrolysis with equilibrium-driven acid hydrolysis on the same substrate.
  • IUPAC Namer — Use IUPAC Namer to practice naming the carboxylate salts (Stage 1) and the neutral acids after work-up.